Automate tasks with Bash scripts

هذا الجزء لم يُترجم بعد. أنت ترى النص الإنجليزي.

$ مستخدم عادي# بصلاحية root (أو مع sudo)

أهداف الامتحان في هذا الفصل

تنفيذ الكود فقط عندما يكون الاختبار صحيحًا (if و test و [ ])
استخدام الحلقات (for وغيرها) لمعالجة الملفات والمدخلات
استخدام مدخلات السكربت ($1 و $2 وغيرها)
استخدام مخرجات الأوامر داخل السكربت

Write your first script

A script starts with the shebang line (#!/bin/bash), which says which program runs it. Make it executable and run it with its path.

Create the file.

/usr/local/bin/hello.sh

#!/bin/bash
# hello.sh - first script
echo "Hello, $USER. Today is $(date +%A)."
exit 0

Make it executable and run it.

#chmod +x /usr/local/bin/hello.sh
$hello.sh
$./hello.sh
$bash hello.sh

Part	Why
`#!/bin/bash`	Use bash (not another shell)
`# comment`	Explain what the script does
`exit 0`	Tell the caller: success (other numbers = an error)

تذكّر

Folders in $PATH (like /usr/local/bin or ~/bin) let you start the script by name. Elsewhere use ./name.sh.

19.2

Read input and use variables

A variable stores a value: NAME=value (no spaces around =), and $NAME uses it. read gets input from the user. $(command) stores the output of a command.

input.sh

#!/bin/bash
read -p "Which folder? " DIR
COUNT=$(ls -1 "$DIR" | wc -l)
echo "$DIR has $COUNT entries"

$./input.sh
Which folder? /etc
/etc has 182 entries

Always put variables in double quotes: "$DIR". Without quotes, names with spaces break.
export NAME makes a variable visible for programs the script starts.
${NAME:-default} uses default when NAME is empty.

19.3

Use positional parameters

Arguments after the script name arrive as $1, $2 … The script can check how many it got.

Variable	Contains
`$0`	The script name
`$1` … `$9`, `${10}`	The arguments
`$#`	The number of arguments
`"$@"`	All arguments, each one separate
`$?`	Exit status of the last command
`$$`	PID of the script

adduser.sh

#!/bin/bash
# usage: adduser.sh NAME [GROUP]
if [ $# -lt 1 ]; then
    echo "usage: $0 NAME [GROUP]" >&2
    exit 1
fi
useradd -G "${2:-users}" "$1" && echo "user $1 created"

19.4

Use tests and if then else

if runs commands only when a test succeeds (exit status 0). test or [ … ] checks files, strings and numbers.

checkfile.sh

#!/bin/bash
FILE=$1
if [ -f "$FILE" ]; then
    echo "$FILE is a file"
elif [ -d "$FILE" ]; then
    echo "$FILE is a folder"
else
    echo "$FILE does not exist"
fi

Test	True when
`-f FILE`, `-d DIR`, `-e PATH`	File / folder / anything exists
`-r`, `-w`, `-x FILE`	Readable / writable / executable
`-z "$S"`, `-n "$S"`	String empty / not empty
`"$A" = "$B"`, `"$A" != "$B"`	Strings equal / not equal
`$X -eq $Y`, `-ne`, `-lt`, `-le`, `-gt`, `-ge`	Numbers: equal, not equal, less, less/equal, greater, greater/equal
`!`	Not

انتبه

Spaces are needed inside the brackets: [ -f "$FILE" ], not [-f "$FILE"].

19.5

Use && and ||

A && B runs B only when A worked. A || B runs B only when A failed. Good for short checks.

$mkdir /tmp/work && cd /tmp/work
$ping -c1 -W1 server2 >/dev/null || echo "server2 is down"
$[ -d /backup ] || mkdir /backup
$grep -q lisa /etc/passwd && echo "lisa exists" || echo "lisa missing"

19.6

Repeat with for

for runs the same commands for each item of a list: words, files, numbers or command output.

loops.sh

#!/bin/bash
for USER in anna bob carol; do
    useradd "$USER"
done
 
for FILE in /var/log/*.log; do
    echo "$FILE: $(wc -l < "$FILE") lines"
done
 
for i in {1..5}; do
    echo "round $i"
done
 
for HOST in $(cat hosts.txt); do
    ping -c1 -W1 "$HOST" >/dev/null && echo "$HOST up"
done

19.7

Repeat with while and until

while repeats while a test is true; until repeats until it becomes true. while read reads a file line by line.

wait.sh

#!/bin/bash
# wait until the web server answers
until curl -fs http://localhost >/dev/null; do
    echo "waiting for httpd..."
    sleep 2
done
echo "httpd is up"
 
# read a list line by line
while read -r NAME GROUP; do
    useradd -G "$GROUP" "$NAME"
done < users.txt

19.8

Choose with case

case compares one value with patterns — cleaner than many elif lines. Common for start/stop/status scripts.

service.sh

#!/bin/bash
case "$1" in
    start)
        systemctl start httpd ;;
    stop)
        systemctl stop httpd ;;
    status|state)
        systemctl status httpd ;;
    *)
        echo "usage: $0 {start|stop|status}" >&2
        exit 1 ;;
esac

19.9

Debug a script

bash -x prints every command before it runs, with the values filled in. bash -n checks the syntax without running anything.

$bash -n backup.sh
$bash -x backup.sh
+ DIR=/etc
+ tar -czf /backup/etc.tgz /etc

Setting	Effect
`set -x` / `set +x`	Trace on / off from this line
`set -e`	Stop at the first command that fails
`set -u`	Error on unset variables
`set -o pipefail`	A pipe fails if any part fails

في العمل

Start real scripts with set -euo pipefail and check them with shellcheck (from EPEL): it finds quoting bugs and other common mistakes.

نصيحة للامتحان

The exam can ask for a small script: for example "write a script that creates users from a list" or "prints a message based on an argument". Test it with good and bad input, and make it executable.

19.10

Remember the main points

The most important facts of this chapter, in short.

A script starts with #!/bin/bash and needs execute permission (chmod +x).
Variables: NAME=value (no spaces), use them as "$NAME"; $(command) puts the output of a command in a variable.
Arguments: $1, $2 …, all with "$@", the number with $#; $? is the exit code of the last command.
if [ test ]; then … elif …; else …; fi checks conditions; test / [ ] compares numbers (-eq, -gt), text (=, -z) and files (-f, -d, -e).
&& runs the next command only on success, || only on failure.
Loops: for x in LIST; do …; done, while CONDITION; do …; done, until.
case "$1" in start) … ;; stop) … ;; *) … ;; esac picks one of many choices.
Debug with bash -x script.sh; end with exit 0 (ok) or another number (error).

19.11

Learn the key terms

The words of this chapter in simple English.

Term	Meaning
Shebang	The first line `#!/bin/bash`: which program runs the script.
Variable	A name that holds a value.
Positional parameter	An argument of the script: `$1`, `$2` …
Exit code	The number a command returns: 0 = ok, other = error.
Command substitution	`$(cmd)`: the output of a command used as a value.
Condition	A test that is true or false.
Loop	Code that runs many times.
Here document	Text inside the script given to a command with `<<EOF`.